In Thought and Language, Vygotsky (1962) outlined how thought and language are independent and develop separately, but with similar processes. Word meaning is the smallest unit of thought and speech. Vygotsky also offers pointers for instructional technologists.
Vygotsky (1962) analyzed a number of studies to help develop his theories of thought and language. In his book, Thought and Language, he took the strengths of those studies to form his theories, then tested his theories in his own studies. Vygotsky was influenced by the writings of Marx, Engels, and Hegel. He was also influenced by Piaget , Blonskii, and Werner (Moll, 1990). He wrote about the development of thought and speech. Plus, he discussed word meaning, the smallest unit of thought and speech. Throughout his book he made statements about instruction that have been compiled to connect how instructional technologists can benefit from Vygotsky's analysis and studies.
Studies of apes show thought and speech develop differently and function separately. Vygotsky (1962) concluded that thought and speech have different genetic roots based on apes, as well as a number of other studies. Thought and word are not connected by a primary bond. They develop independently, and there is no constant correlation between them. However, in human beings there is a close correspondence between them. Since the relationship between thought and speech is ever-changing, their progress does not run parallel. A prelinguistic phase in the development of thought and a preintellectual phase in the development of speech can be observed. Vygotsky cited a study by Koehler and Buehler to give an example of the preintellectual phase in the development of speech. Koehler and Buehler referred to a child's babbling, crying, and first words as the "chimpanzoid age" because they are related to the development of speech and are unrelated to the development of thinking.
Before two years of age, the development of thought and speech are separate. They melt and join at two years to initiate a new form. Thought becomes verbal, and speech becomes rational. Speech serves the intellect as thoughts are spoken. Social environment is important to children's development because it can accelerate or decelerate development (Vygotsky, 1962).
Language has many functions. Language is a tool for organizing thinking because it bears the concepts (Moll, 1990). Vygotsky (1962) addressed speech and written language. He claimed that the primary function of speech is communication. Communicative and egocentric speech are both social with different functions. According to Vygotsky's research, speech develops first with external communicative/social speech, then egocentric speech, and finally inner speech.
Vygotsky (1962) believed that egocentric speech is the transition from the social activity of children to a more individualized activity. It is connected with children's thinking because it helps them overcome difficulties. Contrary to Piaget's beliefs, Vygotsky theorized that the structural and functional qualities of egocentric speech, rather than dwindling, develop into speech that is different from external, social speech. Egocentric speech develops and evolves into inner speech, then declines as inner speech appears.
Vygotsky (1962) used many trials to develop and demonstrate his theories. He sought to discover the beginnings of new abilities. His studies were focused on explaining the process of development rather than the product (Driscoll, 1994). To study egocentric speech, Vygotsky organized his activities like Piaget, but added frustrations and difficulties. Vygotsky observed a relationship between egocentric speech and the activity the child is participating in. To observe the subjects in a variety of activities, obstacles were introduced to disrupt normal problem solving. In difficult situations, children's egocentric speech almost doubled. The egocentric speech did not accompany the activity for long, it simply appeared to be a release of tension and a medium for planning a solution to the problem (Vygotsky, 1962).
At the beginning of its development, egocentric speech is identical in structure to social speech. As egocentric speech transforms, it appears disconnected and incomplete. When the thoughts of speakers are the same, the role of speech is reduced to a minimum. Inner speech often omits subjects, since the subject is understood. If inner speech and egocentric speech are related, then egocentric speech should also omit subjects and appear disconnected (Vygotsky, 1962).
When the characteristics of egocentric speech that are similar to social speech are eliminated, egocentric speech drops. For example, when children were in situations where they would not be heard or understood, their egocentric speech dwindled (Vygotsky, 1962).
Vocalization becomes unnecessary because the child "thinks" the words instead of pronouncing them. Older children with obstacles examine the situation in silence and find a solution. When they describe their thoughts, they are similar to the preschooler's thinking aloud which might also explain the decline in thinking aloud (Vygotsky, 1962).
Vygotsky theorized that egocentric speech has a genetic connection with inner speech. Egocentric speech is the key to studying inner speech because it is the stage that precedes it. Egocentric and inner speech both fulfill intellectual functions and have similar structures. Inner speech is for oneself, while external, social speech is for others. There are various forms of inner speech. Verbal memory, as in the recitation of a poem, is a form of inner speech. Another form is truncated external speech, or speech minus sound (Vygotsky, 1962).
Language does not depend on sound, but is the functional use of signs. Therefore, the written form of language is as equally important as speech. Because, written language is the most elaborate form of language, the developmental level required to learn to write is usually underestimated. Specifically, children must replace words by images of words. Then, they must address their writing to no one in particular. In conversation, on the other hand, the subject is clear to the speaker. Vygotsky (1962) believed that children must also be aware of the phonetics, dissect each word to spell it, and reproduce the words with the symbols of words.
Vygotsky (1962) asserted that thought development is determined by language. There are stages that children pass through to develop their thinking. First they think in complexes, or concrete groupings of objects connected by facts. The process of language creation is similar to complex formation in the intellectual development of the child. Children form complexes when they unite diverse objects in groups with a common family name. In that case, children are using words as names. The objects in a complex are linked in the child's mind based on impressions and bonds that already exist between the objects. Children must pass through developmental stages of complexes before they form a concept.
Vygotsky (1962) also studied concept formation by using nonsense words. According to Vygotsky, the presence of linking an object with a word is not sufficient evidence of concept attainment. He based this on the work of Usnadze, who found that the word is the sign at the beginning of concept formation. The word eventually becomes the symbol of that concept. There is also a discrepancy between the ability to form concepts and identify them. Abstract concepts can be explained with concrete terms and examples. Vygotsky (1962) asserted that this is not sufficient evidence that a concept has been formed.
Vygotsky (1962) based his studies on the work of Sakharov, who studied the development of processes which eventually result in concept formation. Sakharov found that the stages of concept formation begin in childhood, but the intellectual functions develop at puberty. Vygotsky observed that the ascent to concept formation follows phases with sub-stages. Once children move to forming concepts, they never realize the change probably because they do not use meta-cognition. True concepts begin to be formed with increasing fluency. However, the elementary forms are not abandoned. Instead, human beings vacillate between complexes and concepts.
Vygotsky (1962) classified concepts as scientific and spontaneous. Spontaneous concepts are nonconscious, whereas scientific concepts are concepts taught in school. Vygotsky defined systematization as contact with scientific concepts. Vygotsky found that as long as curriculum supplies the necessary material, the development of scientific concepts runs ahead of the development of spontaneous concepts. This is because the scientific concepts are formed in the process of instruction in collaboration with an adult. Also, children develop reflective consciousness through the development of scientific concepts. Furthermore, mastering a higher level in the realm of scientific concepts raises the level of spontaneous concepts.
Scientific concepts, or schooled concepts, are learned "downward" through written symbols to examples, where spontaneous concepts are learned "upward" from sensory experience to generalization (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). Vygotsky observed that children become conscious of spontaneous concepts late. They know the concepts, but they are not aware of the act of their thought. Development of a scientific concept on the other hand begins with its verbal definition and lack of rich content from experience (Vygotsky, 1962). According to neo-Vygotskians Tharpe and Gallimore (1988), it is essential that an interface between the spontaneous and the schooled concepts be provided during instruction. This is where the highest understanding is achieved.
Word meaning is the smallest unit of thought and language. Word meanings are dynamic and not static. Meaning is just part of the sense of the word. The sense of a word is the sum of all the psychological events aroused in our consciousness. The context of the word is also critical in determining word meaning (Vygotsky, 1962).
The relationship between thoughts and words changes. Thought comes into existence through words and establishes a relationship between things. Tharpe and Gallimore (1988) wrote that word meaning is developed through interactions between experts and students.
Vygotsky's work focused on children. Yet, Vygotsky's instructional insights are equally applicable to adult learning (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). According to Vygotsky (1962), learning depends on development, but development is not dependent on learning. Effective instruction can further development. Also, instruction in a given subject influences development of higher functions beyond the confines of that subject.
Quality instruction depends on attention to a sensitive period that exists in all subjects that can be explained in biological, social, and cultural terms. Quality instruction marches ahead of development and leads it. An instructor should bridge the gap between the students' current skill levels and their potential skill level (Driscoll, 1994). Therefore, instructional technologists must be aware of where their students are in their development (Vygotsky, 1962).
Knowledge within a discipline is important, but solving problems that encourage students to go beyond their current skill and knowledge level is critical to effective instruction. Learning involves everyday conflict-generating problem solving. Instruction should provide opportunities for resolving dilemmas (Driscoll, 1994).
Although Vygotsky (1962) did not emphasize the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in this book; the ZPD is relevant to instructional technologists. Since instruction should precede development, the requisite functions are immature when instruction begins. The discrepancy between children's actual mental age and the level they reach in solving problems with assistance is the ZPD. There is no single ZPD for individuals because the zone varies with culture, society, and experience (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). Vygotsky (1962) claimed that the larger the zone, the better students will learn in school.
For a ZPD to be created, there must be a joint activity that creates a context for student and expert interaction. The expert may then use multiple instructional strategies (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). Social interaction is important because the expert can model the appropriate solution, assist in finding the solution, and monitor the student's progress (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988).
Computer programs can be designed to help the students reach their potential in their ZPD in many ways. For one, the computer can be programmed to test various zones. For example, tests can determine the students' ability to solve problems in a subject independently versus their level with assistance. The computer can also prompt students and aid them in problem solving. In addition, the computer can be the requisite social component for expert interaction. The only inequality between partners should be in their levels of understanding. The computer can dissolve the social inequalities that exist between an adult instructor and students. Vygotsky (1962) believed that partners should jointly solve problems to bring about cognitive development. The computer can pose problems and prompt students to serve as the advanced partner to aid in problem solving.
Tharpe and Gallimore (1988) wrote that Vygotsky has laid the groundwork to form a basis for understanding the problem, but the process of correcting teaching and schooling is not addressed. Vygotsky has given some insight into children's development, but he did not provide any useful instructional practice in any of his writings (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988).
It was left for his followers to apply his psychological findings to the classroom. For example, Tharpe and Gallimore (1988) add insight to Vygotsky's (1962) instructional advice by offering guidance on setting up the instructional setting. They wrote that the major task of schools is to promote the development of speech, word meanings, and conceptual structures in a variety of content areas.
Vygotsky graduated from Moscow University with a degree in law. However, he also studied philosophy, psychology, and literature (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). In 1919, he contracted tuberculosis (Moll, 1990). Later, in 1925, he completed his dissertation "The Psychology of Art". Vygotsky lectured, conducted research, and published in the field of psychology until his death in 1934 from tuberculosis. His work was banned in the USSR for political reasons and was not published until 1956. Since then, many researchers, such as Bruner, have based their studies on Vygotsky's work (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). Even though his work is seventy years old, because of his genius, his work becomes more modern as time goes by. There are 180 works written by Vygotsky published in a variety of fields (Moll, 1990).
Driscoll, Marcy P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Moll, L. (Ed.) (1990). Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Tharpe, R. G. and Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life. Cambridge, MA. Cambridge University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
| The Mind of Man |
| Sandy's Language and Thought Process |
| Isidro's Rediscovery of Mind |
| The Case for Constructivist Classrooms |
| Alexis's Vygotsky Critiques Piaget |
| Tharpe and Gallimore |
Author: Alexis Benson
Updated: Monday, July 10, 1995
alexis@tenet.edu
