Leader's Role and Research Requirements at Operational and Strategic Levels:
An Organizational Systems Approach
An Introduction to this Seminar
By
Dr. Bill Steeves
No one knows everything; I certainly do not. As colleagues in learning we are all, theoretically, imbued with the spirit and competencies of scholarship, as well as leadership. Learning should add to one’s capability to apply knowledge gained on the one hand, and to convey to others, subordinates or those in our charge new knowledge and skills. Your purpose as scholars and professional leaders then is not passive and personal. Rather, it is active and interpersonal the result of an inquiring mind, data gathering ability, and analytical acumen applied to making individuals, groups, and organizations better. Managers expect accurate projections and they adore absolutes—what they plan and decide is what they believe their intended outcomes will be. Often, however, their decisions are wrong—ours are too. According to Paul Nutt (1999), half of corporate decisions are wrong. One question is, what can we as scholars and leaders do to improve our ability to plan more effectively and decide more accurately?
To me, the idea of critical thinking and teamwork are keys to successful planning and decision making. Another key element is to ask questions, not just any questions, but the right questions to avoid finding irrelevant answers or finding the right answers to the wrong and therefore useless questions. In this three-part seminar I hope, with your active engagement and challenge, to present some concepts, theories, and ideas that are designed to force us to think more deeply and systematically about what we do in our academic and professional pursuits. Also, I hope we will have some fun in learning together.
This is an integrated three-part seminar that is designed to be highly interactive. In Part I, Foundations, comprehension of organizations as operating systems will be developed using business and management theories, principles, and concepts. Conceptual and analytical models will be used as graphical compliments to enhance building this foundational knowledge base. Because leaders shape structure, stress will be on leadership from its core position in an operating system.
Part II, Techniques, will focus on defining and applying research as a function of leadership at operational and strategic levels. How research requirements are identified in order to analyze more accurately internal and external forces affecting an organization’s ability to survive will be explained. A systems analysis model will be introduced and the importance of critical thinking needed to use this model emphasized. Attention will be devoted to various methods used to predict or project the future relative to strategic objectives and long term planning together with indications for needed change. Stress, therefore, will be on external environmental analysis stemming from research or data collection requirements. Planning and decision variables like decision alternatives, planning considerations for change, control mechanisms, contingencies, and unintended consequences will also be addressed. A case study will be handed out and “corporate planning and analysis teams” of 3-4 members each will be formed at the end of this session in preparation for Part III’s practical exercise.
In Part III, Applications, participants will have an opportunity to apply what they learned in the first two sessions. Following a brief introduction, “corporate planning and analysis teams” will begin their evaluation of the case study. This case study deals with a new product that could impact the petroleum industry’s and local gas stations’ profitability domestically and globally. The task of each group will be to evaluate the situation from a corporate systems perspective, determine research requirements, analyze data and information inputs derived collectively from group members, decide on a course of action that best meets corporate objectives, and present group results. Group presentations are to include the main research requirements, what data and information resources that could have been used, what decision options were considered, and the group’s final decision relative to the new product. Each group should be prepared to justify its decision. If time permits, other group members will critique the presenting group by raising questions and challenges, but also providing constructive commentary to enhance learning. Part III will end with a brief summary of the three parts.
On completion of this three-part seminar participants should be able to:
a. Describe organizational systems theories, principles, and concepts;
b. Explain a senior leader’s role in accomplishing corporate objectives at operational and strategic levels and the implications for research at each level;
c. Determine research requirements as a prelude to planning and decision making at operational and strategic levels;
d. Increase through critical thinking analytical, planning, and decision making competencies; and
e. Apply analytical models and concepts to a situation, case study or actual, and arrive at a decision designed to achieve organizational objectives.
Systems and Systems Thinking
Introduction.
Systems as Bertalanffy (1968) described them are based on wholeness, or the complete entity, made up of sets of interrelated parts. Scholtes (1998) refers to systems in terms of interactions and interdependencies. He then speaks of systems thinking “. . . in terms of interdependencies, interactions, and sequences . . . a way of thinking at the broadest macro-level . . . or the smallest micro-level” (p. 58). He further indicates that we usually work somewhere in between.
Numerous systems models exist and we will examine a few, like Weisbord’s (1984) Six-box Model, Scholte’s (1998) SIPOC model and a standard input-output model. These models should point out the various parts that form the whole and their relationships to one another. It should become evident that systems are influenced, affected, and impacted by their respective environmental forces, both internal and external. One can not really analyze a system without taking in to account its environmental factors. So, we’ll look briefly at environments as integral elements of systems and systems thinking.
Organizational systems involve people, hierarchies, interactions from processes, as well as human dynamics, individual, group, and enterprise. In analyzing systems, often dysfunctions are caused by human neglects, failure to communicate for example, rather than an absence of technical or professional skills, like computer programming and marketing competencies that are integral to a firm’s functioning. With this in mind, certain principles and concepts will be stressed, for instance, convergence and constructive conflict.
Once we have laid a foundation of systems and systems thinking, we will look briefly at the case research method. Most of you will have to work through KAM VII, and many of you may end up applying this research method in your dissertations.
An analytical model used in case research will then be explained. Participants will have an opportunity to use this model in their analysis of a case study in Part III of this seminar. This exercise should require the integration of systems knowledge to derive alternative solutions to a complex situation, one that is not too farfetched from today’s realities.
Let’s take a look at scholarship in the context of historiography from the 14th century.
Therefore, today, the scholar in this field needs to know the principles of politics, the nature of things, and the differences among nations, places, and periods with regard to ways of life, character qualities, customs, sects, schools, and everything else. He further needs a comprehensive knowledge of present conditions in all these respects. He must compare similarities or differences between present and past conditions. He must know the causes of the similarities in certain cases and of the differences in others. He must be aware of the differing origins and beginnings of dynasties and religious groups, as well as of the reasons and incentives that brought them into being and the circumstances and history of the persons who supported them. His goal must be to have complete knowledge of the reasons for every happening, and to be acquainted with the origin of every event. Then, he must check transmitted information with the basic principles he knows. If it fulfils their requirements, it is sound. Otherwise, the historian must consider it as spurious and dispense with it. It was for this reason alone that historiography was highly esteemed by the ancients, so much so that at-Tabari, al-Bukhari, and, before them, Ibn Ishaq and other Muslim religious scholars, chose to occupy themselves with it. Most scholars, however, forgot this, the secret of historiography, with the result that it became a stupid occupation. Ordinary people as well as scholars who had no firm foundation of knowledge, considered it a simple matter to study and know history, to delve into it and sponge on it. Strays got into the flock, bits of shell were mixed with the nut, truth was adulterated with lies. (Kahldun, 1381, in Dawood, 1967, p. 24)
Four systems models will be displayed and discussed, along with an examination of leadership. Note the interconnections of the subsystems and their relationships to their environments and the core position of leadership in Weisbord’s model.
Figure 3-1. The SIPOC model.
Scholtes, P. R. (1998). The leader’s handbook: making things happen, getting things done. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., p. 59.
A Six-box Model
Weisbord, M. R. (1984). Organizational diagnosis: A workbook of theory and practice. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, p. 9.
On Leadership: An Introduction
Leadership is at the hub of any organizational system. The functions and responsibilities of leaders in any organization are manifold. Some leader aspects are obvious, some are more covert, others are situational and either anticipated or unanticipated, and many issues that require leadership seem to go unrecognized or are ignored. Together, all leadership elements create a highly complex subject, one that is difficult to teach and even more arduous in the practice of leading others. Successful leadership is the result of applying a mix of leader qualities.
Without the numerous leadership theories in existence today, I often wonder how leaders of the past practiced the art and science of leadership without the texts, theories, models, and instruments present in today’s leadership lexicon. How did they know how to be effective without formal education and the benefit of leadership research? Could they have been more successful if they had received such scholarly assets? Consider Xenophon, Hannibal, Alexander the Great, and Genghis Khan among others (think of some more) who go way back in time. Did these notable leaders somehow, consciously and unconsciously, possess inane qualities? Did their fathers and elders teach them, and if so, what were the lessons learned and how were they practiced?
That was then, and this is now! Think about what is going on around us, in the United States and around the world, governments and organizations of all kinds. Consider also your own organization and workplace and outside structures such as an association or club. Mentally, cull out those in change and evaluate them, their pluses and minuses. Ask yourself why you believe certain things about them are positive and others negative. Next, determine what the causes for these failings and successes are in your mind. And finally, based on what you have observed, experienced, and learned, explain what could be done to improve leaders, and how you would attempt to change existing leader behaviors for the better.
A Working Definition of Leadership
For our purposes, leadership begins with a person in a position who is responsible for people in one or more functional areas, who, working together as a team, accomplish a common mission or stated purpose. Other definitions are:
It seems to me that to rule [lead] men is the art of
arts and the science of sciences, for man is a
being diverse and manifold in character.
St. Gregory of Nazianzen (c. 257-332) Orations, 2, 16
Quoting from a special report in Time, September 1976, here is another definition of leadership:
• that illusive, indefinable, yet recognizable quality"
in Zeleznik, A. (1989). The Managerial Mystique: Restoring Leadership in Business. New Harper & Row, Publishers (p. 4).
But there is a caveat on defining leadership. “Always, it seems, the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless proliferation of terms to deal with it . . . and still the concept is not sufficiently defined.” Warren Bennis, 1959
in Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organizations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc. (p. 2)
And perhaps the best definition of all, because one word captures the complexity of leadership with all of its human and behavioral elements, comes from the French Foreign Legion, “mystique.”
Leadership principles are basic guidelines to help the leader select appropriate actions and orders in his exercise of command. These are:
a. Be technically and tactically proficient.
b. Know yourself and seek self-improvement.
c. Know your men and look out for their welfare.
d. Keep your men informed.
e. Set the example.
f. Ensure that the task is understood, supervised, and accomplished.
g. Train your men as a team.
h. Make sound and timely decisions.
i. Develop a sense of responsibility in your subordinates.
j. Employ your unit in accordance with its capabilities.
k. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions.
Again dipping back in time to one of the great leaders of all time, Cyrus the Great of Persia.
Born around 590 B.C.E, Cyrus forged an empire from India to Greece. While earlier leaders banned their enemies' religions, Cyrus respected the religions of other people. He bowed down to his subjects' gods and rebuilt their temples. He issued what is called the first declaration of human rights. "I respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire," he declared, "and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them." His empire lasted 200 years. (Feiler, 2005, p. 6)
Business Theory According to Peter Drucker
Drucker’s Theory of the Business Has Three Assumptions About the Organization’s:
1. Environment which Consists of Four Elements:
1. Society and Its Structure
2. The Market
3. The Customer
4. Technology
2. Specific Mission; and
3. Core Competencies Needed to Accomplish the Mission.
To Drucker, a Valid Theory of the Business has Four Specifications .
Specification One:
The Organization’s: Environment; Specific Mission; and Core Competencies MUST FIT REALITY!
Specification Two:
All Three Areas: Environment; Specific Mission; and Core Competencies MUST FIT ONE ANOTHER!
Specification Three:
The Theory of the Business Must Be Known and Understood Throughout the Organization!
Specification Four:
The Business Has to Be Tested Constantly!
Drucker, P. F. (1995). Managing in a time of great change. New York: TrumanTalley Books/Dutton (pp. 29-31).
TASK AND GENERAL ENVIRONMENTS IN AN ORGANIZATION
Daft, R. L. & Steers, R. M. (1986). Organizations: A Macro/Micro Approach.
Glenview: Scott, Foresman, p., 288.
Cited in
Szilagyi, Jr., A. D. & Wallace, Jr., M. J. (1990). Organization Behavior and Performance
(5th ed.). USA: Harper Collins Publishers (p. 628).
Copyright © 1992 by William D. Steves Jr.
It is important that leaders listen and ask questions. Often, they may hear what they do not want to hear, an opposing point of view for instance. Yet if there are none, has sufficient critical thought taken place? Is there only ONE way to do something, or is there another, perhaps better way? In the absence of other opinions we need to solicit them, all this in the context of constructive conflict or as Peter Drucker described it, organized disagreement. True, but as we know, expressing one’s beliefs against the winds of prevailing “wisdom” and group think may be politically unwise and very detrimental to one’s career health. Heed the valuable lessons contained in the following quotes.
MORAL COURAGE
A person who is willing to terminate his life to save someone else's should be no less willing to terminate a career through the candid expression of his/her professional convictions offered.
The real issue is not the risk to the critic, but
the risk to an organization if there are no critics.
Anonymous
The lesson of this concept is embedded in the last sentence—remember it well!
President, or that we are to stand by the President, right or wrong,
is not only unpatriotic and servile,
but is morally treasonable to the American public.
Theodore Roosevelt
US President (1858-1919)
From: Wordsmith <wsmith@wordsmith.org>
The community as a whole doesn't listen patiently to critics who adopt alternative viewpoints. Although the great lesson of history is that knowledge develops through the conflict of viewpoints.
Walter Gilbert
From: Wordsmith wsmith@wordsmith.org
As we approach organizational systems analysis, think about the interconnections of the many variables that form and shape organizations. An Arab scholar, Ibn Khaldun, born in Tunisia was said to be the first social scientist that applied analytical rigor to his investigations of society. It is further said that in the context of economics he preceded Adam Smith in economic thought. My point here is in your own research go as far back in the literature as is possible. Often we can be amazed at the foresight some people had before we had formalized theories and often management fads said to be cure-alls. Note Khaldun’s focus on the interconnectedness of seemingly disparate parts.
The Muqaddimah follows a logical arrangement. It begins with man's physical environment and its influence upon him. This is followed by an analysis of primitive social organization, the character of early leadership, and the relationship of primitive human societies with each other, as well as their relationship to the higher, urban form of society. Then government of the state, the highest form of human social organization, is discussed in general and that of the Caliphate, the special Muslim case, in particular. This part includes an exposition of how changes come about in the dynasties ruling a given state. Thus the argument turns to urban life as the most developed form of human association and civilization. Finally, all aspects of higher civilization are examined in great detail: commerce, the crafts, the arts, and the sciences, considered both as pre-requisites and consequences of urban life. (Khaldun, 1381, in Dawood, 1967, p. x)
Copyright © 1996 by William D. Steeves Jr.
Copyright © 1992 (Revised 1997, 2005) by William D. Steeves Jr.
GUIDELINES. Use this textual component of the model in parallel with the graphic display. (Do not use only the graphic display as ideas for questions and actions may not be apparent.) Remember, the intent of this portion of the model is to foster critical thought, analysis, and synthesis by activating your powers of inquiry and diagnosis, and desire to be thorough. It is not intended to be an end all or encompass a complete list of questions and actions. Adapt the model to the case you are investigating. Use and/or restructure what is appropriate, discard what is not relevant, and design what you need to be as comprehensive as possible.
PHASE I: RECOGNITION
1. DESCRIBE THE SITUATION.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç WHAT Are the Key Events Found in the Case Study or On the Job?
ç WHAT Are the Situational Factors Uncovered in Research?
PHASE II: ANALYSIS OF KEY VARIABLES SURROUNDING THE SITUATION
2. STATE THE MISSION AND PURPOSE(S).
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Cite the Organization’s Mission and Stated Purpose(s).
ç Is the Organization Structured (Analyze the System) to Accomplish Its Basic Mission?
ç List Specific Management Objectives Relating to the Situation Being Investigated.
ç Is the Organization Able to Attain Situational Objectives As It Is Now Structured?
3. IDENTIFY ESSENTIAL FACTS BEARING ON THE CASE.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç WHAT Situational Facts Will Affect Your Analysis and Decision?
ç WHAT Facts Derived from Research Will Affect Your Analysis and Decision?
4. CITE THE MAIN PLAYERS, PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç List Managers, Employees, Stakeholders, Lobbyists, Special Interest Groups, Victims, Consumers etc. Directly and Indirectly Related to the Case or Work Situation as Involved Participants, Potential Beneficiaries and Influencers.
ç WHY Are They Involved (Consider the “Not So Obvious” Reasons)?
ç WHAT Is Their Perception of the Situation?
5. DESCRIBE AND ANALYZE THE VALUE BASE AND CULTURE.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Evaluate and Describe the Organization’s Culture Throughout the System.
ç Explain the Culture Expressed by Executives and Other Key Players.
ç Ask, “Do the Values and Culture Match the Actions of the Case or Work Situation?”
ç WHAT Subcultures Exist and WHAT are their effects on the Organization?
6. LIST ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES AFFECTING YOUR ANALYSIS.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Assess the Organization, Competitor, and Situational (Task and General, Internal and External) Environments.
ç Focus on WHAT Forces Stem from these Environments.
ç Determine HOW These Forces Could Affect the Total System.
PHASE III: APPLY RESEARCH SKILLS, DRAW CONCLUSIONS, AND DETERMINE CAUSES
7. ANALYZE THE SITUATION (PROBLEM OR OPPORTUNITY).
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Plan and Organize the Analytical Process.
ç Determine Data and Information Needs and WHERE to Get Them.
ç Select the Most Appropriate Qualitative and/or Quantitative Methodologies To Be Used.
ç Consider Output Measures (Also Used as Controls) as Performance Indicators:
|
Percent Market Share |
Profitability |
|
New Products and Services |
Training Dollars as Percent of Payroll |
|
Productivity |
R&D as Percent of Gross Revenue |
|
Financial and Capital Resources |
Community Involvement |
ç WHAT Other Facts Derived from Analysis Surrounded the Situation?
ç WHEN Was the Situation, Problem or Opportunity Recognized?
ç WHO Recognized It?
ç WHERE Was It Recognized?
ç HOW Was It Recognized?
ç WHY Did It Occur?
ç Then, Analyze and Specify the Cause(s).
ç WHAT Differences and Similarities Existed Over Time?,
ç Have ALL Key Questions Been Asked?,
8. MAKE REALISTIC ASSUMPTIONS.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Identify Pseudo “Facts” or "Truths" Based on Analytical Findings, Knowledge, Logic, Principles or Experience that in the Absence of Firm Information You Would Use to Fill Data Gaps In Order to Analyze and Make Decisions More Accurately.
9. STATE THE CONDITION BY DEFINING THE SITUATION, PROBLEM OR OPPORTUNITY PRECISELY.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Write a Clear Situation/Problem/Opportunity Statement in Statement or Question Form.
ç Consider Using a Formal Research Statement of the Problem as an Example.
PHASE IV: DESIGN AND ACTIVATE A COURSE OF ACTION
10. SPECIFY YOUR INTENDED OUTCOME(S) AND OBJECTIVES.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç WHAT Results or Changes Need to Happen and WHY?
ç Specify Intended Outcome(s) or Objectives.
ç Make Objectives Measurable and Attainable.
ç Align Objective(s) With Mission, and Alternatives and Controls To Be Set Later.
11. DEVELOP ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION AND THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Reassess Prior Analyses and Determine WHAT, If Any, Data Are Missing.
ç Implement a Revised Data Collection and Analysis Plan If Necessary to Fill Gaps in Data.
ç Based on Your Analyses:
• List Alternative Courses of Action To Accomplish the Objectives You Set.
• Evaluate the Positives and Negatives (Find Disagreement if None Exists).
• Consider the Costs and Benefits of Each, Short- and Long-Term.
• Identify Required Resources.
• Specify Changes in Structure, Personnel, Skills etc. To Be Made.
ç Design a Change Implementation Plan If Change Must Occur.
12. SELECT AND IMPLEMENT THE BEST ALTERNATIVE, OR COMBINATION.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Evaluate the Alternatives Carefully.
ç Justify Your Choice By Answering the Question, WHY?
ç WHAT Resources Are Needed, Are They Available Within the System?
ç HOW Will You Obtain Non-Existent Resources; WHAT Are the Costs?
ç If New Workforce Skills Are Needed, WHAT Training is Required?
ç Explain HOW You Intend to Implement Your Action Plan.
ç Identify Action Steps Needed and Their Priorities.
ç Check Intended Outcomes; Will Your Choice Achieve These Ends?
ç HOW Do You Know?
13. DESCRIBE THE CONTROL MECHANISM(S) YOU WILL INITIATE.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Specify HOW You Intend to Track Your Action Plan Once It Is Activated.
ç Specify WHAT Systemwide Measurable Controls You Will Use By Functional Area.
ç Specify WHAT Measurable Controls You Will Use For Each Functional Area.
ç State HOW You Will Use Them (Consider People, Functions, Process, Timing etc.).
ç Verify That Control Measures Are Aligned With INTENDED OUTCOMES.
ç Indicate Frequency Controls Are to be Measured.
14. Develop Contingency SCENARIOS AND Action Plans AS COUNTERS To UNCERTAINTIES.
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Prepare Scenarios for the Unexpected by Developing What Ifs.
ç WHAT Environmental Measures/Data Would Indicate a Contingency?
ç WHAT Is the Probability of Its Occurrence and When Would It Likely Occur?
ç WHAT Possibilities Could Keep You from Attaining Your Objectives?
ç Consider Extremes: The Negative Events (Your Projections Are Too High, How Do
You Increase Demand?); The Positive Events (Demand Exceeds Capacity to Produce/Supply, WHAT Do You Do? HOW Do You Do It?).
ç Consider: Objective(s), Would Objective(s) Need to be Changed? WHY?
ç WHAT Added Resources Would be Needed? (From Previously Identified Contingency
Threshold [Must Act], How Much Time Is There to Obtain Needed Resources?)
ç WHAT Could Impact the Operating System? (WHY? HOW Would It Impact the
System? WHAT Effect Would It Have? WHAT Changes Would Be Required?)
PHASE V: TRACK AND MODIFY AS REQUIRED
15. EVALUATE THROUGHOUT THE TOTAL PROCESS AND BEYOND
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç This Is a Continuing and On-going Assessment Effort During Each Step and During the
Aggregate of Steps of the Model Until a Course of Action Has Been Implemented and Control Mechanisms Serve to Monitor and Evaluate Actual Performance and Results--It Is Not A Stand-alone One-time Evaluation.
ç Back Out of the Process and Look Back In as an Outsider at Each Step in the process.
Examine the Steps Individually and In Aggregate.
ç Assess WHAT You Have Done, WHY You Did It and If HOW You Did It Is the Best Way?
ç Is WHAT You Have Done or Want to Do Aligned With the Objectives You Have Set?
ONGOING THROUGHOUT EACH PHASE
16. REVIEW AND REVISE AS REQUIRED
Possible Actions and/or Questions
ç Assess Everything At the Time the Course of Action Is To Be Implemented and As the
Action Progresses After Implementation to Determine If Conditions, Environmental Forces, Variables and Other Factors Require Any Modification to the Planned Approach.
ç Make Changes to the Original Course of Action if the Situation Dictates.
ç Do Not Allow a Decision Once Made to be Followed Blindly When Conditions Require Change.
Afterthought. On completion of your investigation, consider the model as an organized approach for writing reports and briefing papers and making oral presentations when required.
On the Case Research Method and Other Aspects of Research.
Embedded in your analysis of an organizational system’s situation will be the variables associated with the type of research and analytical techniques you will use. Selection of the correct research design and appropriate statistical or other analytical methods will be essential to the success of your efforts. Because of the nature of Toxic Threads, perhaps action research techniques would be a good approach. Regardless, this situation seems to be well-suited to the case research method highlighted next, along with a few insights in to the difficulties of doing research.
Gay (1987) provides this definition of case study research:
A case study is the in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution. . . . The primary purpose of case study is to determine the factors, and relationships among the factors that have resulted in the current behavior or status of the subject of the study. In other words, the purpose of a case study is to determine why, not just what (p. 207).
The following passage from Heuer's 1980 article entitled "Perception: Why Can't We See What Is There to be Seen?"(p. xxi)
Given the difficulties inherent in the human processing of complex information, a prudent management system should:
• Encourage products that (a) clearly delineate their assumptions and chains of inference and (b) specify the degree and source of the uncertainty involved in the conclusions.
• Emphasize procedures that expose and elaborate alternative points of view—analytic debates, devil's advocates, interdisciplinary brainstorming, competitive analysis, intra-office peer review of production, and elicitation of outside expertise.
Heuer (1999) states something that is relevant to doctoral students and their dissertations. The idea behind this statement seems to be the need for critical thinking and an objective mind that will accommodate conflicting views. He said,
As discussed in the next chapter, mind-sets and mental models are inescapable. They are, in essence, a distillation of all that we think we know about a subject. The problem is how to ensure that the mind remains open to alternative interpretations in a rapidly changing world. (p. 5).
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